History of epidemiology

History of epidemiologic ideas

History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts

 

PEOPLE'S EPIDEMIOLOGY LIBRARY

 

We would like to thank the American College of Epidemiology for funding the expansion of this website. Below, we have provided a structured bibliography of the History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts, which includes a Medline and PDF link for each document. We understand that the structure of this website is somewhat out-of-date, and are hoping that future funding will allow us to improve the design. Please feel free to send us any comments or suggestions you may have regarding the website.

Table of contents

What is it?

Warning

How to count?

How to set up comparisons?

Errors in measurements and comparisons

What do epidemiologists see as causes?

How to deal with multiple causes?

Textbooks

Biographies

VOICES (Epidemiology)

Debates and Controversies

Commentaries

REPRINTS AND REFLECTIONS (International Journal of Epidemiology)

 

 

What is it?

Epidemiology is the science of counting health-related events and compare these counts over time, place and people. Health-related events are the diseases themselves and their causes. The sections of the People's Epidemiology Library follow the major methodological and conceptual aspects of epidemiology.

Warning

This list is incomplete. Please help us making it more exhaustive by sending us suggestions of background publications, and key books and papers.

How to count?

Counts are at the core of epidemiology. Their evolution of how health-related events are counted is described in background historical papers and in key/milestones papers. Several types of counts are considered (e.g., risk and rates, prevalence and incidence, including Rose-Ledermann model, as well as epidemic curves).

Background publications

Morabia A (2004) Epidemiology: An epistemological perspective. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , chapter 2

Eyler JM (2002) Constructing vital statistics: Thomas Rowe Edmonds and William Farr, 1835-1845. Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 149-58. Older version in SPM.

Eyler JM (2003) Understanding William Farr's 1838 article "On prognosis": comment. Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , pp, 195-198

Farr W (2003) "On prognosis" by William Farr (British Medical Almanack 1838; Supplement 199-216) Part 1 (pages 199-208). Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 159-178. Older version in SPM, part one and part 2.

Gerstman BB (2003) Comments regarding "On prognosis" by William Farr (1838), with reconstruction of his longitudinal analysis of smallpox recovery and death rates. Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 183-190. Older version in SPM.

Hill GB (2003) "On prognosis" by William Farr (British Medical Almanack 1838; Supplement 199-216). Part 2 (pages 208-216). Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 179-182. Older version in SPM.

Key papers

• Aubrey J [edited and with an introduction and notes by Anthony Powell] (1949) John Graunt- A brief life. PDF
• Clayton D, Schifflers E (1987). Models for temporal variation in cancer rates II: age-period cohort models. Stats Med ; 6: 469–81.
• Clemmesen J (1974). Statistical studies in malignant neoplasms, vol. IV. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
• Cutler SJ, Ederer F (1958). Maximum utilization of the life table method in analyzing survival. J Chronic Dis 8: 699–712. PDF
• De Morgan A (1860–61b). On Gompertz's law of mortality. Assurance Mag 9: 214–215.
• Dorn HF (1951). Methods of measuring incidence and prevalence of disease. Am J Public Health 41: 271–278. PDF
• Edmonds TR (1832b). Life Tables founded upon the discovery of a numerical law, regulating the existence of every human being. Illustrated by a new theory of the causes producing health and longevity. London: J. Moyes. PDF
  • Link: Eyler (2002)
• Edmonds TR (1835–36a). On the law of mortality in each county of England. Lancet 1: 364-371 (PDF), 408-416 (PDF)
• Elandt-Johnson R (1975). Definition of rates: some remarks on their use and misuse. Am J Epidemiol 102: 267–271. PDF
• Elderton WP, Perry SJ (1910). Drapers' Company Research Memoirs. Studies in National Deterioration. VI: A third study of the statistics of pulmonary tuberculosis. The mortality of the tuberculous and sanatorium treatment. London: Cambridge University Press.
• Farr W (1837b). On the law of recovering and dying in small-pox, Article II. Br Ann Med 1:134–143.
• Farr W (1838). On prognosis. British Medical Almanack Suppl: 199–216. PDF
• Farr W (1843b). Construction of life tables. 5th A.R.R.G., B.P.P .; XXI: 161–77 (342–367).
• Freeman J, Hutchison GB (1980). Prevalence, incidence and duration. Am J Epidemiol 112: 707–723. PDF
• Gompertz B (1825). On the nature of the function expressive of the law of human mortality, and on a new mode of determining the value of life contingencies. Phil Trans 115: 513–583. PDF
• Graunt J (1939). [1662] Natural and political observations made upon the Bills of Mortality. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. PDF
• Greenwood M, Yule G (1914–15). The statistics of anti-typhoid and anti-cholera inoculations, and the interpretation of such statistics in general. Proc Roy Soc Med ; 8: 113–194. PDF
• Kannel WB, Gordon T (1970). Some characteristics related to the incidence of cardiovascular diseases and death: Framingham Study, 16-year follow-up. Washington DC: Govt Printing Office.
• Korteweg R (1952). The age curve in lung cancer. Br J Cancer 5: 21–27. PDF
  • Link: Doll (2002)
• Ledermann S (1957). Alcool, alcoolisme, alcoolisation. Paris: INED. PDF
• Magnus K, ed. (1981). Trends in cancer incidence: causes and practical implications. Washington: Hemisphere.
• Miettinen O (1976). Estimability and estimation in case-referent studies. Am J Epidemiol 103: 226–325. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Miettinen O "Estimability and estimation in case-referent studies." PDF
• Morgenstern H, Kleinbaum DG, Kupper LL (1980). Measures of disease incidence used in epidemiologic research. Int J Epidemiol 9: 97–104. PDF
• Osmond C, Gardner MJ (1982). Age, period and cohort models applied to cancer mortality rates. Stats Med ; 1: 245–259.
• Rose G (2005). Incubation period of coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 34:242-244. PDF
  • Commentary: Marchant AT, Anand SS, and Yusuf S (2005). Commentary: Insights from cross-population studies: Rose revisited. Int J Epidemiol 34:244-246. PDF
  • Commentary: Færgeman O (2005). Commentary: Geoffrey Rose's thinking about coronary artery disease. Int J Epidemiol 34:246-247. PDF
  • Commentary: McCarron P and Davey-Smith G (2005). Commentary: Incubation of coronary heart disease - recent developments. Int J Epidemiol 34:248-250. PDF
• Rose G (1981). Strategy of prevention: lessons from cardiovascular disease. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 282: 1847–1851. PDF
• Rose G, Day S (1990). The population mean predicts the number of deviant individuals [see comments]. BMJ 301: 1031–1034. PDF
• Snow J (1854). On the mode of communication of cholera. London: Churchill. PDF
• Tuberculosis in the United States, graphic presentation. Vol 2: Proportionate mortality statistics for states and geographic divisions by age, sex and race. Washington: Medical Research Committee, National Tuberculosis Association, 1944.
• Vandenbroucke JP (1985). On the rediscovery of a distinction. Am J Epidemiol 121: 627–628. PDF
• Vandenbroucke JP, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE (1988). A note on the history of the calculation of hospital statistics. Am J Epidemiol 127: 699–702. PDF
• Vandenbroucke JP, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE (1996). In defense of Farr and Nightingale. Ann Intern Med 125: 1014. PDF
• Vandenbroucke JP, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE (1997). A return to Farr and Nightingale. Ann Intern Med 127: 170–171. PDF

How to set up comparisons?

To identify causes and quantify their effects, counts need to be compared. There exists ways to set up comparisons called study designs and several measures of effect to summarize the count comparisons. The measures of effect comprise risk ratio, risk difference, odds ratio and number needed to treat. Study designs comprise cohort, cross selection, ccs and ecologic comparisons.

Background publications

Morabia A (2004) Epidemiology: An epistemological perspective. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , sections 3.1-3.3, 3.5-3.6, 3.10-3.12,

Doll R (2004) Cohort studies: history of the method. In History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts , Morabia A (ed) Birkhäuser: Basel, pp 243-274. Older version in SPM, part 1 and part 2.

Paneth N, Susser E, Susser M (2004) Origin and early development of the case-control study. In History of Epidemiologic Methods and Concepts , Morabia A (ed) Birkhäuser: Basel, pp 291-312. Older version in SPM, part 1 and part 2.

Key papers

• Atkins E, Cherry N, Douglas JWB, Kiernan KE, Wadsworth MEJ (1981). The 1946 British cohort: an account of the origins, progress and results of the national survey of health and development. In: Medrick SA, Baert AE, eds. Prospective longitudinal research: an empirical basis for the primary prevention of psychosocial disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 25–30.
• Beebe GW, Hamilton HB (1975). Future research on atomic bomb survivors. J Radiat Res , 16 (Suppl): 149–65. PDF
• Beebe GW, Kato H, Land CE (1971). Studies of the mortality of A-bomb survivors. IV. Mortality and radiation dose 1950–1960. Radiat Res ; 48: 613–49. PDF
• Beebe GW. Reflections on the work of the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission in Japan. Epidemiologic Rev 1979; 1: 184–208. PDF
• Broders AC (1920). Squamous cell epithelioma of the lip: a study of five hundred and thirtyseven cases. JAMA 74: 656–64. PDF
• Case RAM, Hosker ME, McDonald DB, Pearson JT (1954). Tumours of the urinary bladder in workmen engaged in the manufacture and use of certain dyestuff intermediates in the British chemical industry. Part 1, The role of aniline, benzidine, alpha-naphthylamine and beta-naphthylamine. Brit J Indust Med 11: 75–104. PDF
• Case RAM, Lea AJ (1955). Mustard gas poisoning, chronic bronchitis, and lung cancer: an investigation into the possibility that poisoning by mustard gas in the 1914–18 war might be a factor in the production of neoplasia. Brit J Prev Soc Med 9: 62–72. PDF
• Case RAM, Pearson JT (1954). Tumours of the urinary bladder in workmen engaged in the manufacture and use of certain dyestuff intermediates in the British chemical industry. Part 2, Further considerations of the role of aniline and of the manufacture of auramine and magenta (fuchsine) as possible causative agents. Brit J Indust Med 11: 213–6. PDF
• Cole P (1979). The evolving case-control study. J Chron Dis 32: 15–27. PDF
• Court Brown WM, Doll R (1957). Leukaemia and aplastic anemia in patients irradiated for ankylosing spondylitis. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. (Medical Research Council. Special report series; No. 295). PDF
• Cornfield J (1951). A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data; applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix. J Natl Cancer Inst 11: 1269–1275. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Cornfield J "A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data. Applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix." PDF
• Cornfield J, Haenszel W (1960). Some aspects of retrospective studies. J Chronic Dis 11: 523– 534. PDF
• Davey-Smith G, Strobele SA, Egger M (1994). Smoking and health promotion in Nazi Germany. J Epidemiol Community Health 48: 220–223. PDF
• Dawber TR, Meadors GF, Moore FE (1951). Epidemiological approaches to heart disease: the Framingham study. Am J Public Health ; 41: 279–286. PDF
• Doll R, Hill AB (1950). Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. Br Med J 2: 739–748. PDF
• Doll R, Hill AB (1954). The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits: a preliminary report. Br Med J 1: 1451–1455 PDF
• Doll R, Hill AB (1956). Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking: a second report on the mortality of British doctors. BMJ 2: 1071–1081. PDF
• Doll R, Hill AB (1964). Mortality in relation to smoking: ten years' observations of British doctors. BMJ ; 1: 1399–1414 (PDF), 1460–1467. (PDF)
• Doll R, Peto R (1981). The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst 66: 1191–1308. PDF
• Doll R, Vessey MP, Beasley RWR, et al. (1972) The mortality of gas-workers: final report of a prospective study. Brit J Industr Med ; 29: 394–406. PDF
• Doll WR, Hill AB (1952). A study of the aetiology of carcinoma of the lung. Br Med J ii: 1271–1286. PDF
• Dorn HF (1959). Some problems arising in prospective and retrospective studies of the etiology of disease. N Engl J Med 261: 571–579. PDF
• Downes J (1935). A study of the risk of attack among contacts in tuberculous families in a rural area. Am J Hyg 1935; 22: 731–742.
• Feinleib M, Zelen M (1969). Some pitfalls in the evaluation of screening programs. Arch Environ Health 19: 412–415.
• Feinstein AR (1979). Methodologic problems and standards in case-control research. J Chron Dis 32: 35–41. PDF
• Frost WH (1933). Risk of persons in familial contact with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Public Health ; 23: 426–32. PDF
• Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Sydenstricker E (1920). A study of the relation of diet to pellagra incidence in seven textile-mill communities of South Carolina in 1916. Pub Health Rep 35: 648–713. PDF
• Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Sydenstricker E (1920). A study of the relation of family Income and other economic factors to pellagra incidence in seven cotton-mill villages of South Carolina in 1916. Public Health Rep 35: 2673–2714. PDF
• Greenland S, Thomas DC (1982). On the need for the rare disease assumption in case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 116: 547–553. PDF
• Greenland S, Thomas DC, Morgenstern H (1986). The rare-disease assumption revisited. A critique of “estimators of relative risk for case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 124: 869–883. PDF
• Greenland S (1987). Interpretation and choice of effect measures in epidemiologic analyses. Am J Epidemiol 125(5)761-768. PDF
• Greenwood M F.R.C.P. (1928). A review of recent statistical studies of cancer problems. The Cancer Review 3(3)97-107. PDF
• Hammond EC, Horn D (1958). Smoking and death rates, Report on forty four months of follow- up of 187,783 men. Death rates by cause. JAMA 166: 1159–1172, 1294–1308. PDF
• Herbst AL, Ulfelder H, Poskanzer DC (1971). Adenocarcinoma of the vagina: association of maternal stilbestrol therapy with tumor appearance in young women. N Engl J Med 284: 878–881.
• Hogue CJ, Gaylor DW, Schulz KF (1983). Estimators of relative risk for case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol. 1983 Sep;118(3):396–407 PDF
• Hurwitz ES, Barrett MJ, Bregman D (1987). Public Health Service study of Reye's syndrome and medications: report of the main study. JAMA 257: 1905–1911. PDF
• Ibrahim MA, ed. (1979) Proceedings of symposium on the case-control study. J Chron Dis 32: 1–139.
• Jablon S, Ishida M, Yamasaki M (1965). Studies of the mortality of A-bomb survivors. III. Description of the sample and mortality, 1950–1960. Radiat Res ; 25: 25–52. PDF
• Kagan A, Dawber TR, Kannel WB, Revotskie N (1962). The Framingham study: a prospective study of coronary heart disease. Federation Proc ; 21 (Suppl11): 52–57.
• Kehrberg MW, Latham RH, Haslam BT, et al. (1981). Risk factors for staphylococcal toxicshock syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 114: 873–879. PDF
• Kennaway EL, Kennaway NM (1947). A further study of the incidence of cancer of the lung and larynx. Brit J Cancer ; 1: 260-98. PDF
• Kramer MS, Boivin JF (1989). Directionality, timing and sample selection in epidemiologic research designs. J Clin Epid 42: 827–828. PDF
• Kurland LT, Molgaard CA, Schoenberg BG (1982). Mayo clinic record-linkage: contribution to neuroepidemiology. Neuroepidemiology 1: 102–114. PDF
• Lane-Claypon J (1926). A further report on cancer of the breast with special reference to its associated antecedent conditions. London: Ministry of Health. (Reports on public health and medical subjects; 32).
• Laupacis A, Sackett DL, Roberts RS (1988). An assessment of clinically useful measures of the consequences of treatment. N Engl J Med 318: 1728–1733. PDF
• Lee AM, Fraumeni JF Jr (1969). Arsenic and respiratory tract cancer in man: an occupational study. J Natl Cancer Ins 42: 1045–52.
• Levin ML, Goldstein H, Gerhardt PR (1950) Cancer and tobacco smoking: a preliminary report. J Am Med Assoc 143: 336–338. PDF
• Liddell FD (1988). The development of cohort studies in epidemiology: a review. J Clin Epidemiol 41: 1217–1237. PDF
• Lilienfeld AM (1973). Epidemiology of infectious and non-infectious disease: some comparisons. Am J Epidemiol 97(3)135-147. PDF
• Lilienfeld AM (1982). The Fielding H. Garrison Lecture: Ceteris paribus: the evolution of the clinical trial. Bull Hist Med 56: 1–18. PDF
• Lilienfeld AM, Lilienfeld DE (1979). A century of case-control studies: progress? J Chronic Dis 32: 5–13 PDF
• Lind J (1953). [1753] A treatise of scurvy. Edinburgh: University Press.
• Lombard HL, Doering CR (1928). Cancer studies in Massachusetts. 2. Habits, characteristics and environment of individuals with and without cancer. N Engl J Med 195: 481–487. PDF
• Louis PCA (1828). Recherche sur les effets de la saignée dans plusieurs maladies inflammatoires. Archives générales de médecine 18: 321–336.
• Louis PCA (1836). Researches on the effects of bloodletting in some inflammatory diseases. Boston: Hilliard, Gray and Company.
• Louis PCA (1844). Researches on phthisis, anatomical, pathological and therapeutical. Transl. by Walter Hayle Walshe. 2nd ed. considerably enlarged. London: The Sydenham Society.
• Mantel N (1973). Synthetic retrospective studies and related topics. Biometrics 29: 479–486. PDF
• Mantel N, Haenszel W (1959). Statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 22: 719–748. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Mantel and Haenszel "Statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease." PDF
• Miettinen O (1976). Estimability and estimation in case-referent studies. Am J Epidemiol 103: 226–235. PDF
• Miettinen OS (1983). The need for randomization in the study of intended effects. Stat Med;2:267-71.
• Morrison A (1982). Case definition in case-control studies of the efficacy of screening. Am J Epidemiol;115:6-8 PDF
  • Commentary: Weiss, N (2009)
  • Key Passages: Morisson, 1982
• Müller FH (1939). Tabakmissbrauch und Lungencarzinom. Ztschr Krebsforsch 49: 57–85. PDF
• Pearson K (1904). Report on certain enteric fever inoculation statistics. Brit Med J 11:1243-1246. PDF
• Robinson WS (1950)[2009 reprint]. Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals. Am Sociol Rev 15: 351–357. PDF
• Schairer E, and Schöniger E (2001). Lung cancer and tobacco consumption. Int J Epidemiol 30:24-27. PDF
  • Commentary: Schairer HU (2001). Commentary: In Memoriam of my Father, Prof. Dr. med. Dietrich Eberhard Schairer. Int J Epidemiol 30:28-29. PDF
    
  • Commentary: Doll R (2001). Commentary: Lung Cancer and Tobacco Consumption. Int J Epidemiol 30:30-31. PDF
    
  • Commentary: Proctor RN (2001). Commentary: Schairer and Schöniger's forgotten tobacco epidemiology and the Nazi quest for racial purity. Int J Epidemiol 30:31-34. PDF
    
  • Commentary: Zimmermann S, Egger M, and Hossfeld U (2001). Commentary: Pioneering research into smoking and health in Nazi Germany - The 'Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren' in Jena. Int J Epidemiol 30:35-37. PDF
  • Commentary: Ernst E (2001). Commentary: The Third Reich - German physicians between resistance and participation. Int J Epidemiol 30:37-42. PDF
• Schrek R, Lenowitz H (1946). Etiologic factors in carcinoma of the penis. Cancer Res 7: 180–187. PDF
• Schrek R et al. (1950). Tobacco smoking as an etiologic factor in disease. I. Cancer. Cancer Research 10(1)49-58. PDF
• Schwartz S (1994). The fallacy of the ecological fallacy: the potential misuse of a concept and the consequences. Am J Public Health 84: 819–824. PDF
• Smith PG, Rodrigues LC, Fine PE (1984). Assessment of the protective efficacy of vaccines against common diseases using case-control and cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol 13: 87– 93. PDF
• Snow J (1855). On the mode of communication of cholera. 2nd edition, much enlarged. London: Churchill. PDF
• Susser M (1985). Epidemiology in the United States after World War II: The evolution of technique. Epidemiologic Reviews 7: 147–177. PDF
• Therapeutic Trial Committee of the Medical Research Council (1934). The serum treatment of lobar pneumonia. Lancet 1: 290–295. PDF
• Vandenbroucke JP (2001). In defense of case reports and case series. Ann Intern Med 134: 330–334. PDF
• Vandenbroucke JP (1997). RE: "A new perspective on john snow's communicable disease theory." Am J Epidemiol 146(4)363-364. PDF
• Weinberg W (1913). Die Kinder der Tuberkulosen. Leipzig: Hirzel.
• Winkelstein W (1995). A new perspective on John Snow's Communicable Disease Theory. Am J Epidemiol 142(9)S3-S9. PDF
• Wynder EL, Graham EA (1950). Tobacco Smoking as a Possible Etiologic Factor in Bronchiogenic Carcinoma. J Am Med Assoc 143(4)329-336. PDF

Errors in measurements and comparisons

Count comparisons are subjects to many sources of errors which can in general be categorized as selection bias (Berkson's bias and others), information bias, and screening bias (lead, length, overdiagnosis)

Background publications

Morabia A (2004) Epidemiology: An epistemological perspective. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , section 3.7

Vineis P (2002) History of bias. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 327-336. Older version in SPM.

Key papers

• Berkson J (1946). Limitations of the application of fourfold table analysis to hospital data. Biometrics 2:47-53. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Berkson J "Limitations of the application of fourfold table analysis to hospital data." PDF
• Copeland KT, Checkoway H, McMichael AJ, Holbrook RH (1977) Bias due to misclassification in the estimation of relative risk. Am J Epidemiol 105 : 488-495 PDF
• Feinstein AR, Sosin DM, Wells CK (1985). The Wil Rodgers phenomenon. Stage migration and new diagnostic techniques as a source of misleading statistics for survival in cancer. N Engl J Med 312: 1604–1608.
• Fox AJ, Collier PF (1976). Low mortality rates in industrial cohort studies due to selection for work and survival in the industry. Br J Prev Soc Med 30: 225–230. PDF
• Glesby MJ, Hoover DR (1996). Survivor treatment selection bias in observational studies: examples from the AIDS literature. Ann Intern Med 124: 999–1005. PDF
• Greenland S (1996). Basic methods for sensitivity analysis of biases. Int J Epidemiol 25:1107-1116. PDF
• Guy WA (1843). Contributions to a knowledge of the influence of employment upon health. J Roy Stat Soc 6: 197–211. PDF
• Hernán MA, Hernández-Díaz S, and Robins JM (2004). A structural approach to selection bias. Epidemiology 15(5):615-625. PDF
• Hutchinson GB, Shapiro S (1968). Lead time gained by diagnostic screening for breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 41: 665–681.
• Kraus AS (1954). The use of hospital data in studying the association between a characteristic and a disease. Public Health Rep 69: 1211–1214. PDF
• Medical Research Council, Report of the Patulin Clinical Trials Committee (2004). Clinical Trial of Patulin in the Common Cold. Int J Epidemiol 33:243-246. PDF
  • Commentary: Kaptchuk TJ, and Kerr CE (2004). Commentary: Unbiased divination, unbiased evidence, and the patulin clinical trial. Int J Epidemiol 33:247-251. PDF
  • Commentary: Sutherland I (2004). Commentary: MRC Patulin trial. Int J Epidemiol 33:252. PDF
  • Commentary: Chalmers I, and Clarke M (2004). Commentary: The 1944 patulin trial: the first properly controlled multicentre trial conducted under the aegis of the British Medical Research Council. Int J Epidemiol 32:253-260. PDF
• Newell DJ (1962). Errors in the interpretation of errors in epidemiology. Am J Public Health 52: 1925–1928. PDF
• Roberts RS, Spitzer WO, Delmore T, Sackett DL (1978). An empirical demonstration of Berkson's bias. J Chronic Dis 31: 119–128. PDF
• Sackett DL (1979). Bias in analytic research. J Chron Dis 32: 51–63. PDF
• Silber ALM, Horwitz RL (1986). Detection bias and relation of benign breast disease to breast cancer. Lancet i: 638–640. PDF

What do epidemiologists see as causes?

To move from a comparison of counts to statements of causality, we need concepts and strategies. The key point is how to decide that a given factor is a cause of a disease. A cause makes something happen, i.e., makes disease happen or prevents disease. Understanding causes enables you to change things if you want to, for example: to change the occurrence of disease. This point of view goes back to a pragmatic definition of causes that was coined by Lilienfeld in 1957.

Background publications

Morabia A (2004) Epidemiology: An epistemological perspective. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , sections 4.9-4.10

Vineis P (2003) Causality in epidemiology. . In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed). Birkhäuser: Basel , pp337-350. Older version in SPM.

Stellman SD (2003) Issues of causality in the history of occupational epidemiology. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed). Birkhäuser: Basel , pp. 275-290. Older version in SPM.

• Key papers
• Blalock HM (1964). Causal inference in non-experimental research. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
• Cornfield J (1954). Statistical relationhips and proof in medicine. Am Statistician 8: 19–21 PDF.
• Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Cornfield J "Statistical relationships and proof in medicine." pg. 10. PDF
• Cornfield J (1976). Recent methodological contributions to clinical trials. Am J Epidemiol 104: 408–21. PDF
• Cornfield J, Haenszel W, Hammond EC, et al (2009). Smoking and lung cancer: recent evidence and a discussion of some questions. Int J Epidemiol 38:1175-1191. PDF
• Commentary: Cox DR (2009). Commentary: Smoking and lung cancer: Reflections on a pioneering paper. Int J Epidemiol 38:1192-1193. PDF
• Commentary: Vandenbroucke JP (2009). Commentary: 'Smoking and lung cancer' - the embryogenesis of modern epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 38:1193-1196. PDF
• Commentary: Zwahlen, M (2009). Commentary: Cornfield on cigarette smoking and lung cancer and how to assess causality. Int J Epidemiol 38:1197-1198. PDF
• Commentary: Greenhouse JB (2009). Commentary: Cornfield, Epidemiology and Causality. Int J Epidemiol 38:1199-1201. PDF
• Evans AS (1993). Causation and disease: a chronological journey. The Thomas Parran Lecture. New York: Plenum Medical Book Co . PDF
• Hill AB (1965). Environment and disease: association or causation? Proc Royal Soc Med 58: 295–300.
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Hill AB "The environment and disease: association or causation?" pg. 14. PDF
• Morabia A (1991). On the origin of Hill's causal criteria. Epidemiology 2: 367–369. PDF
• Robins J, Greenland S (1986). The role of model selection in causal inference from nonexperimental data. Am J Epidemiol 123: 392–402. PDF
• Rose G (2001). Sick Individuals and Sick Populations. Int J Epidemiol 30:427-432. PDF
  • Commentary: Ebrahim S, and Lau E (2001). Commentary: Sick populations and sick individuals. Int J Epidemiol 30:433-434. PDF
  • Commentary: McCormick J (2001). Commentary: Reflections on sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol 30:434-435. PDF
  • Commentary: Schwartz S, and Diez-Roux R (2001). Commentary: Causes of incidence and causes of cases - a durkheimian perspective on Rose. Int J Epidemiol 30:435-439. PDF
  • Commentary: Weed DL (2001). Commentary: A Radical Future for Public Health. Int J Epidemiol 30:440-441. PDF
  • Commentary: Hunt K and Emslie C (2001). Commentary: The Prevention Paradox in Lay Epidemiology - Rose revisited. In J Epidemiol 30:442-446. PDF
• Rothman KJ (1976). Causes. Am J Epidemiol 104: 587–592. PDF
• Susser M, Susser E (1996). Choosing a future for epidemiology. II. From black box to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology. Am J Pub Health 86: 674–677. PDF
• The Surgeon General's Advisory Committee (1964). Smoking and health. Washington: Public Health Service Publication No 1103.
• Yerushalmy J, Palmer CE (1959). On the methodology of investigations of etiologic factors in chronic diseases. J Chron Dis 10(1):27-40. PDF

How to deal with multiple causes?

Most diseases have multiple causes. The task of the epidemiologist is sometimes to separate the effects of these causes (confounding) and sometimes to assess their joint effect (interaction).

This section comprises contribution about the concept of multicausality, confounding, including matching, analysis of cohort effect and interaction.

Background publications

Morabia A (2004) Epidemiology: An epistemological perspective. In History of epidemiological methods and concepts , Morabia A (ed) pp 1-126. Birkhäuser: Basel , sections 3.4, 3.8, 3.12,

Comstock GW (2004) Cohort analysis: W.H. Frost's contributions to the epidemiology of tuberculosis and chronic disease. In History of Epidemiological Methods and Concepts , Morabia A (ed), Birkhäuser: Basel, pp 223-231. Older version in SPM.

Vandenbroucke JP (2004) The history of confounding. In History of Epidemiological Methods and Concepts , Morabia A (ed). Birkhäuser: Basel, pp 313-326. Older version in SPM.

Key papers

• Andrieu N, Goldstein AM (1998). Epidemiologic and genetic approaches in the study of gene environment interaction: an overview of available methods. Epidemiol Rev 20: 137–47. PDF
• Andvord KF (1930). Hvad kan vi laere ved a folge tuberkulosens gang fra generasjon til generasjon? Norsk Magasin Laegevidenskapen; June 91: 642–60. (Engl. transl. by Gerard Wijsmuller). PDF
• Armitage P and Doll R (2004). The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenosis. Int J Epidemiol 33:1174-1179. PDF
  • Commentary: Frank SA (2004). Commentary: Mathematical models of cancer progression and epidemiology in the age of high throughput genomics. Int J Epidemiol 33:1179-1181. PDF
  • Commentary: Moolgavkar SH (2004). Commentary: Fifty years of the multistage model: remarks on a landmark paper. Int J Epidemiol 33:1182-1183. PDF
  • Commentary: Doll R (2004). Commentary: The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenosis. Int J Epidemiol 33:1183-1184. PD
• Cole SR and Hernán MA (2002). Fallibility in estimating direct effects. Int J Epidemiol 31:163-165. PDF
• Cornfield J, Haenszel W, Hammond EC, et al. (1959) Smoking and lung cancer: recent evidence and a discussion of some questions. J Natl Cancer Inst 22: 173–203. PDF
• Cornfield J (1971). The University Group Diabetes Program: a further statistical analysis of the mortality findings. JAMA 217:1676–87. PDF
• Frost WH (1939). The age selection of mortality from tuberculosis in successive decades. Am J Hyg 30: 91–96. PDF
• Greenland S, Thomas DC (1982). On the need for the rare disease assumption in case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 116: 547–553. PDF
• Greenland S (1996). Basic methods for sensitivity analysis of biases. Int J Epidemiol 25:1107-1116. PDF
• Greenland S and Neutra R (1980). Control of confounding in the assessment of medical technology. Int J Epidemiol 9:361-367. PDF
• Greenland S and Robins JM (1986). Identifiability, exchangeability, and epidemiological confounding. Int J Epidemiol 15:412-418. PDF
• Greenland S, Pearl J, and Robins JM (1999). Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research. Epidemiology 10(1):37-48. PDF
• Greenland S, and Morgenstern H (1989). Ecological bias, confounding, and effect modification. Int J Epidemiol 18(1):269-274. PDF
• Hammond EC, Selikoff IJ, Seidman H (1979). Asbestos exposure, cigarette smoking and death rates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 330: 473–490. PDF
• Hardy RC, White C (1971). Matching in retrospective studies. Am J Epidemiol 93: 75–6. PDF
• Hernán MA, Hernández-Díaz S, Werler MM, and Mitchell AA (2002). Causal knowledge as a prerequisite for confounding evaluation: An application to birth defects epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 155(2):176-184. PDF
• Hernán MA, Hernández-Díaz S, and Robins JM (2004). A structural approach to selection bias. Epidemiology 15(5):615-625. PDF
• Keller AZ, Terris M (1965). The association of alcohol and tobacco with cancer of the mouth and pharynx. Am J Public Health 55: 1578–1585. PDF
• Kish L (1959). Some statistical problems in research design. Am Sociol Rev 26: 328–338. PDF
• Mantel N, Haenszel W (1959). Statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease. JNCI 22: 719–748. PDF
• Miettinen OS (1970). Matching and design efficiency in retrospective studies. Am J Epidemiol 91: 111–118. PDF
• Miettinen OS (1976). Stratification by a multivariate confounder score. Am J Epidemiol 104: 609–620. PDF
• Miettinen OS, Cook EF (1981). Confounding, essence and detection. Am J Epidemiol 114: 593–603. PDF
• Robins JM and Greenland S (1992). Identifiability and exchangeability for direct and indirect effects. Epidemiology 3(2)143-155. PDF
• Robins JM, Hernán MA and Brumback B (2000). Marginal structural models and causal inference in epidemiology. Epidemiology 11(5):550-560. PDF
• Ross RK, Yuan J-M, Yu MC, et al. (1992). Urinary aflatoxin biomarkers and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet ; 339: 943–946. PDF
• Rothman KJ (1976). Causes. Am J Epidemiol 104: 587–592. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Rothman KJ "Causes." pg. 39. PDF
• Rothman KJ, Keller A (1972). The effect of joint exposure to alcohol and tobacco on risk of cancer of the mouth and pharynx. J Chronic Dis 25: 711–6. PDF
• Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Walker AM (1980). Concepts of interaction. Am J Epidemiol 112: 467-470. PDF
• Selikoff IJ, Churg J, Hammond EC (1964). Asbestos exposure and neoplasia. JAMA 188: 22–26. PDF
• Simpson EH (1951). The interpretation of interaction in contingency tables. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Ser B 13: 238–241. PDF
  • Greenland S. Commentary from Evolution of Epidemiologic Ideas (ERI 1987) Simpson EH "The interpretation of interaction in contingency tables." PDF
• Snow J (1849). On the pathology and mode of communication of cholera. London Medical Gazette 44:745-752. PDF
• Vanderweele TJ, Robins JM (2007). The identification of synergism in the sufficient-component-cause framework. Epidemiology 18:329-339. PDF
• Wacholder S, Rothman N, Caporaso N (2000). Population stratification in epidemiologic studies of common genetic variants and cancer: quantification of bias. J Natl Cancer Inst 92: 1151–1158. PDF
• Yule GU (1903). Notes on the theory of association of attributes in statistics. Biometrika 2(2)121-134. PDF

Textbooks

Textbooks summarize the of the epidemiology discipline at a given moment in time. They can be very influential when they are widely used to train young generations of students. In this section we present a selection of the most influential ones. The study of subsequent (editions of) textbooks also allows to understand the evolution of the field.

Background publications

Zhang FF, Michaels DC, Mathema B, Kauchali S, Chatterjee A, Ferris DC, James TM, Knight J, Dounel M, Tawfik HO, Frohlich JA, Kuang L, Hoskin EK, Veldman FJ, Baldi G, Mlisana KP, Mametja LD, Diaz A, Khan NL, Sternfels P, Sevigny JJ, Shamam A, Morabia A (2004) Evolution of epidemiologic methods and concepts in selected textbooks of the 20th century. In History of Epidemiological Methods and Concepts , Morabia A (ed), Birkhäuser: Basel, pp 351-362. Older version in SPM.

Bracken M (2003). The first epidemiologic text. Am J Epidemiol 157 : 855–856.

Lilienfeld DE (2003). The first epidemiology textbook, revisited. Am J Epidemiol 157: 856–857.

• Key books
• Gordis L (1996). Epidemiology. First Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Gordis L (2000). Epidemiology. Second Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Gordis L (2004). Epidemiology. Fourth Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Greenwood M (1935). Epidemics and crowd diseases. London: Williams and Norgate Ltd.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Hill AB (1937). Principles of medical statistics. London: Lancet . (Postgraduate series; vol.3).
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Kelsey JL, Thompson WD, Evans AS (1986). Methods in observational epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Kelsey JL, Whittemore AS, et al. (1996). Methods in observational epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Kleinbaum DG, Kupper LL, Morgenstern H (1982). Epidemiologic research: Principles & quantitative methods. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold .
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Last JM (1988). A dictionary of epidemiology. 1st ed. New York; Oxford; Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
• Last JM (1988). A dictionary of epidemiology. 2nd ed. New York; Oxford; Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
• Last JM (1988). A dictionary of epidemiology. 3rd ed. New York; Oxford; Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
• Last JM (1988). A dictionary of epidemiology. 4th ed. New York; Oxford; Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
• Lilienfeld AM, Lilienfeld D (1980). Foundations of epidemiology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Lilienfeld AM, Lilienfeld DE (1976). Foundations of epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• MacMahon B, Pugh TF (1970). Epidemiology – Principles and methods. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• MacMahon B, Pugh TF, Ipsen J (1960). Epidemiologic methods. London: J & A Churchill Ltd.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Mausner JS, Bahn AK (1974). Epidemiology: an introductory text. Philadelphia: Saunders.
• Miettinen OS (1985). Theoretical epidemiology. New York: Wiley.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
  • Glossary
• Monson RR (1980). Occupational epidemiology. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
• Morris JN (1957). Uses of epidemiology. Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Morris JN (1970). Uses of epidemiology. 2nd ed. London: E. & S. Livingston.
• Morris JN (2007). Uses of epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1165-1172. PDF
  • Commentary: Krieger N (2007). Commentary: Ways of asking and ways of living: Reflections on the 50th anniversary of Morris' ever useful Uses of Epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1173-1180. PDF
  • Commentary: Porter D (2007). Calculating health and social change: An essay on Jerry Morris and Late-modernist epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1180-1184. PDF
  • Commentary: Oakley A (2007). Fifty years of JN Morris's Uses of Epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1184-1185. PDF
• Murphy EA (1976). The logic of medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Pan American Health Organization (1988) The challenge of epidemiology. Issues and selected readings. Washington: PAHO
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Rose G (1994). The strategy of preventive medicine. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Rosen G (1958). A history of public health. New York: MD Publications, Inc.
• Rothman KJ (1986). Modern epidemiology. Boston: Little Brown and Co.
• Rothman KJ (ed) (1988). Causal inference. Boston: Epidemiology Resources.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Rothman KJ, Greenland S (1998). Modern Epidemiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott- Raven: 29–46.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Sartwell PE (ed) (1965). Section One: Methods in public health and preventive medicine 1. Epidemiology. In: Sartwell PE (ed.): Maxcy-Rosenau: Preventive Medicine and Public Health. Meredith Publishing Company, New York.
• Schlesselman JJ (1982). Case-control studies. Design, conduct, analysis. New York: Oxford University Press .
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Susser M (1973). Causal thinking in the health sciences. New York: Oxford.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Szklo M, Nieto FJ (2000). Epidemiology: beyond the basics. Gaithersburg: Aspen Publishers.
• Troehler U (1978). Quantification in British medicine and surgery, 1750–1830, with special reference to its iIntroduction into therapeutics. Thesis/Dissertation, London: University of London.
• Troehler U (2000). 'To improve the evidence of medicine': The 18th Century British origins of a critical approach. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians.

Biographies

Epidemiology is made by epidemiologists. Knowing what happened in their life can be interesting for other epidemiologists per se, but can also help to understand the bases and nature of their contribution to the evolution of the field.

Background publications

Holland, WW, Olsen, J, Florey CdV. The Development of Modern Epidemiology. Personal reports from those who were there. Oxford University Press, 2007

• Key books and papers
• Armenian HK, Szklo M (1996) Morton Levin (1904–1995): history in the making. Am J Epidemiol 143: 648–649. PDF
• Doll R. Austin Bradford Hill (1994). Biog Mem Fell Roy Soc ; 40: 129–140.
• Elmore JG, Feinstein AR (1994) Joseph Goldberger: An Unsung Hero of American Clinical Epidemiology. Ann Intern Med 121: 372–375. PDF
• Eyler J (1979). Victorian social medicine: the ideas and methods of William Farr. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Eyler JM (1980). The conceptual origins of William Farr's epidemiology: numerical methods and social thought in the 1830s. Time, places, and persons. A. M. Lilienfeld. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press: 1–21.
• Hogben L (1950–51). Major Greenwood. Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 7: 139–54.
• Humphreys NA (1885). Biographical sketch of William Farr. Vital Statistics: a memorial volume of selections from the Reports and Writings of William Farr. London: Office of the Sanitary Institute: vii–xxiv.
• Langmuir AD (1976). William Farr: founder of modern concepts of surveillance. Int J Epidemiol 5: 13–18. PDF
• Lilienfeld AM, Lilienfeld DE (1980). The French influence on the development of epidemiology. Henry E Sigerist Suppl Bull Hist Med 4: 28–42. PDF
• Lilienfeld DE (1978). “The greening of epidemiology”: sanitary physicians and the London Epidemiological Society (1830-1870). Bull Hist Med 52: 503–528. PDF
• Lilienfeld DE (2000). John Snow: the first hired gun? Am J Epidemiol ; 152: 4–9. PDF
• Morabia A (1996). P. C. A. Louis and the birth of clinical epidemiology. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 1327–1333. PDF
• Morabia A, Rochat T (2001). Reproducibility of Louis' definition of pneumonia. Lancet 358: 1188. PDF
• Rothman KJ (1996). Lessons from John Graunt. Lancet 347: 37–39. PDF
• Shephard DAE (2003). John Snow. Anaesthetist to a Queen and epidemiologist to a nation. A biography. Cornwall, PA: York Point Publishing.
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Susser M, Adelstein A (1975). An introduction to the work of William Farr. Am J Epidemiol 101: 469–476. PDF
• Terris M (1997). Re: “Morton Levin (1904–1995): history in the making”. Am J Epidemiol 146: 365. PDF
• Terris M (1964). Goldberger on Pellagra. Baton Touge: Louisiana State University. Vandenbroucke JP (2001). Changing images of John Snow in the history of epidemiology. Soz Praventivmed 46: 288–293
  • Title Page
  • Table of Contents
• Vandenbroucke JP, Eelkman Rooda HM, Beukers H (1991). Who made John Snow a hero? Am J Epidemiol 133: 967–973. PDF
• Vinten-Johansen P, Brody H, Paneth N et al. (2003). Cholera, chloroform and the science of medicine: A Life of John Snow. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Wynder EL (1997). Tobacco as a cause of lung cancer: some reflections. Am J Epidemiol 146(9)687-694. PDF

VOICES (Epidemiology)

We sincerely thank the editors of Epidemiology for helping us link these interview to the journal's website where the Voices can be freely downloaded..

A Conversation with Sir Richard Doll (PDF)
Sarah Darby
Epidemiology. 14(3):375-379, May 2003

A Conversation with Zena Stein (PDF)
Allen J. Wilcox
Epidemiology. 14(4):498-501, July 2003

A Conversation With George W. Comstock (PDF)
Dale P. Sandler
Epidemiology. 14(5):623-627, September 2003

A Conversation With Mervyn Susser (PDF)
Nigel Paneth
Epidemiology. 14(6):748-752, November 2003

A Conversation With Jack Schull (PDF)
Lowell E. Sever
Epidemiology. 15(1):118-122, January 2004

A Conversation With Margaret Becklake (PDF)
Pierre Ernst
Epidemiology. 15(2):245-249, March 2004

A Conversation With Warren Winkelstein, Jr (PDF)
Patricia A. Buffler
Epidemiology. 15(3):368-372, May 2004

A Conversation With Brian MacMahon (PDF)
Walter Willett
Epidemiology. 15(4):504-508, July 2004

A Conversation with Jerry Morris (PDF)
George Davey Smith
Epidemiology. 15(6):770-773, November 2004

A Conversation With D. A. Henderson (PDF)
Jonathan M. Samet
Epidemiology. 16(2):266-269, March 2005

A Conversation With Lester Breslow (PDF)
Claudia R. Baquet
Epidemiology. 16(3):410-413, May 2005

A Conversation With John Pemberton (PDF)
David Gunnell
Epidemiology. 17(4):479-482, July 2006

A Conversation With Henry Blackburn (PDF)
Bernard L. Harlow
Epidemiology. 19(3):513-517, May 2008

A Conversation With Jacob Brody (PDF)
Leslie Stayner
Epidemiology. 19(5):756-759, September 2008

A Conversation With Maureen Henderson (PDF)
Thomas Koepsell
Epidemiology. 20(5):775-778, September 2009

A Conversation With Pelayo Correa (PDF)
Elizabeth T. H. Fontham
Epidemiology. 21(1):154-157, January 2010

 

Debates and Controversies

• Key books and papers
• Rothman KJ (2007). The rise and fall of epidemiology, 1950-2000 A.D. Int J Epidemiol 36:708-710. PDF

• Commentary: Rothman KJ (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology still ascendent. Int J Epidemiol 36:710-711. PDF
• Commentary: Victora CG (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology and futurology - why did Rothman get it wrong? Int J Epidemiol 36:712-713. PDF
• Commentary: Pearce N (2007). Commentary: The rise and rise of corporate epidemiology and the narrowing of epidemiology's vision. Int J Epidemiol 36:713-717. PDF
• Commentary: Coebergh JWW (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology needs the patients to survive. Int J Epidemiol 36:717-719. PDF
• Commentary: Coleman MP (2007). Commentary: Is epidemiology really dead, anyway? A look back at Kenneth Rothman's 'The rise and fall of epidemiology, 1950-2000 AD.' Int J Epidemiol 36:719-723. PDF

• Stolley PD (1991). When genius errs: R.A. Fisher and the lung cancer controversy. Am J Epidemiol 133(5)416-425. PDF
• Susser M, Susser E (1996). Choosing a future for epidemiology. II. From black box to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology. Am J Pub Health 86: 674–677. PDF
• White C (1990). Research on smoking and lung cancer: a landmark in the history of chronic disease epidemiology. Yale J Biol Med 63:29-46. PDF

Commentaries

Morrison A (1982). Case definition in case-control studies of the efficacy of screening. Am J Epidemiol;115:6-8

• Commentary: Weiss, N (2009)
• Key Passages: Morisson, 1982

Reprints and Reflections (International Journal of Epidemiology)

We sincerely thank the editors and Oxford University Press for granting us permission to post these papers from the International Journal of Epidemiology to the People’s Epidemiology Library, Reprints and Reflections section.

Ackerknecht EH (2009). Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867: The Fielding H. Garrison Lecture . Int J Epidemiol 38:7-21. PDF

• Commentary: Hamlin C (2009). Commentary: Ackerknecht and ‘Anticontagionism’: a tale of two dichotomies . Int J Epidemiol 38:22-27. PDF
• Commentary: Rosenberg CE (2009). Commentary: Epidemiology in context . Int J Epidemiol 38:28-30. PDF
• Commentary: Stern AM and Markel H (2009). Commentary: Disease etiology and political ideology: revisiting Erwin H Ackerknecht's Classic 1948 Essay, ‘Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867’ . Int J Epidemiol 38:31-33. PDF

Allende S (2005). Medical and Social Reality in Chile . Int J Epidemiol 34:732-736. PDF

• Commentary: Muir R and Angell A (2005). Commentary: Salvador Allende: his role in Chilean politics . Int J Epidemiol 34:737-739. PDF
• Commentary: Waitzkin H (2005). Commentary: Salvador Allende and the birth of Latin American social medicine . Int J Epidemiol 34:739-741. PDF

Andvord KF (2008). Continued Studies of Tuberculosis considered as a generation illness . Int J Epidemiol 37:917-922. PDF

• Commentary: Øyvind N and Schiøtz A (2008). Commentary: Kristian Feyer Andvord's studies on the epidemiology of tuberculosis and the origin of generation cohort analysis . Int J Epidemiol 37:923-932. PDF
• Commentary: Rieder HL (2008). Commentary: Reconciling historical epidemiological, bacteriological and immunological observations in tuberculosis . Int J Epidemiol 37:932-934. PDF
• Commentary: Davies PDO (2008). Commentary: Tuberculosis down the generations—a comment on ‘Continued studies of Tuberculosis as a generation illness’ by Kr F Andvord . Int J Epidemiol 37:934-936. PDF
• Commentary: Enarson DA (2008). Commentary: Kristian Andvord—an under recognized star in the epidemiological firmament . Int J Epidemiol 37:936-937. PDF

Armitage P and Doll R (2004). The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenosis. Int J Epidemiol 33:1174-1179. PDF

• Commentary: Frank SA (2004). Commentary: Mathematical models of cancer progression and epidemiology in the age of high throughput genomics. Int J Epidemiol 33:1179-1181. PDF
• Commentary: Moolgavkar SH (2004). Commentary: Fifty years of the multistage model: remarks on a landmark paper. Int J Epidemiol 33:1182-1183. PDF
• Commentary: Doll R (2004). Commentary: The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenosis. Int J Epidemiol 33:1183-1184. PDF

Armstrong DB (2005). The medical aspects of the Framingham Community Health and Tuberculosis Demonstration . Int J Epidemiol 34:1183-1187. PDF

• Commentary: Kannel WB and Levy D (2005). Commentary: Medical aspects of the Framingham Community Health and Tuberculosis Demonstration . Int J Epidemiol 34:1187-1188. PDF
• Commentary: Comstock GW (2005). Commentary: The first Framingham Study—a pioneer in community-based participatory research. Int J Epidemiol 34:1188-1190. PDF
• Commentary: Susser M and Stein Z (2005). Commentary: Donald Budd Armstrong (1886–1968)—pioneering tuberculosis prevention in general practice . Int J Epidemiol 34:1191-1193. PDF

Berkson J (2003). Tests of significance considered as evidence. Int J Epidemiol 32:687-691. PDF

• Commentary: Fisher RA (2003). Note on Dr. Berkson’s criticism of tests of significance . Int J Epidemiol 32:692. PDF
• Commentary: Sterne J (2003). Commentary: Null points—has interpretation of significance tests improved? . Int J Epidemiol 32:693-694. PDF
• Commentary: Stone M (2003). Commentary: Worthwhile polemic or transatlantic storm-in-a-teacup? . Int J Epidemiol 32:694-698. PDF
• Commentary: Goodman S (2003). Commentary: The P-value, devalued . Int J Epidemiol 32:699-702. PDF

Breslow L (2006). Public health aspects of weight control . Int J Epidemiol 35:10-12. PDF

• Commentary: Breslow L (2006). Commentary: On ‘public health aspects of weight control’ . Int J Epidemiol 35:12-14. PDF
• Commentary: Simmons RK and Wareham NJ (2006). Commentary: Obesity is not a newly recognized public health problem—a commentary of Breslow's 1952 paper on ‘public health aspects of weight control’ . Int J Epidemiol 35:14-16. PDF
• Commentary: Bain C (2006). Commentary: What's past is prologue . Int J Epidemiol 35:16-17. PDF
• Commentary: Uauy R and Lock K (2006). Commentary: The importance of addressing the rise of overweight and obesity—progress or lack of action during the last fifty years? . Int J Epidemiol 35:18-20. PDF
• Commentary: Caballero B and Wang Y (2006). Commentary: Obesity and mortality—light at the end but still a long tunnel . Int J Epidemiol 35:21-22. PDF
• Commentary: Olshansky SJ (2006). Commentary: Prescient visions of public health from Cornaro to Breslow . Int J Epidemiol 35:22-23. PDF

Chagas C (2008). A new disease entity in man: a report on etiologic and clinical observations . Int J Epidemiol 37:694-695. PDF

• Commentary: Moncayo A (2008). Commentary: The lucid reasoning of Carlos Chagas . Int J Epidemiol 37:695-696. PDF
• Commentary: Goldbaum M and Barreto ML (2008). Commentary: The contribution and example of Carlos Chagas . Int J Epidemiol 37:697-698. PDF
• Commentary: Gürtler RE, Diotaiuti L and Kitron U (2008). Commentary: Chagas disease: 100 years since discovery and lessons for the future . Int J Epidemiol 37:698-701. PDF
• Commentary: da Rocha Carvalheiro J and Gadelha P (2008). Commentary: Carlos Chagas—predecessor of Epidemiology in Brazil . Int J Epidemiol 37:701-703. PDF

Cochrane AL (2003). Elie Metschnikoff and his theory of an ‘instinct de la mort’ . Int J Epidemiol 32:32-34. PDF

• Commentary: Aveline M (2003). Commentary on Cochrane AL (1934). Elie Metschnikoff and his theory of an ‘instinct de la vie’ . Int J Epidemiol 32:34-35. PDF
• Commentary: Thomas H (2003). Commentary: Early thoughts on death, disease and sex . Int J Epidemiol 32:36. PDF

Cole SR and Hernán MA (2002). Fallibility in estimating direct effects. Int J Epidemiol 31:163-165. PDF

Cornfield J, Haenszel W, Hammond EC, et al (2009). Smoking and lung cancer: recent evidence and a discussion of some questions. Int J Epidemiol 38:1175-1191. PDF

• Commentary: Cox DR (2009). Commentary: Smoking and lung cancer: Reflections on a pioneering paper. Int J Epidemiol 38:1192-1193. PDF
• Commentary: Vandenbroucke JP (2009). Commentary: 'Smoking and lung cancer' - the embryogenesis of modern epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 38:1193-1196. PDF
• Commentary: Zwahlen, M (2009). Commentary: Cornfield on cigarette smoking and lung cancer and how to assess causality. Int J Epidemiol 38:1197-1198. PDF
• Commentary: Greenhouse JB (2009). Commentary: Cornfield, Epidemiology and Causality. Int J Epidemiol 38:1199-1201. PDF

Dahl LK (2005). Possible role of salt intake in the development of essential hypertension . Int J Epidemiol 34:967-972. PDF

• Commentary: Graudal N (2005). Commentary: Possible role of salt intake in the development of essential hypertension . Int J Epidemiol 34:972-974. PDF
• Commentary: Elliott P (2005). Commentary: Role of salt intake in the development of high blood pressure Int J Epidemiol 34:975-978. PDF

Darwin GH (2009). Marriages between first cousins in England and their effects . Int J Epidemiol 38:1429-1439. PDF

• Commentary: Kuper A (2009). Commentary: A Darwin family concern . Int J Epidemiol 38:1439-1442. PDF
• Commentary: Stoltenberg C (2009). Commentary: Of the same blood . Int J Epidemiol 38:1442-1447. PDF
• Commentary: Evans A (2009). Commentary: Darwin's Origin: the Irish connection . Int J Epidemiol 38:1448-1452. PDF
• Commentary: Bittles AH (2009). Commentary: The background and outcomes of the first-cousin marriage controversy in Great Britain . Int J Epidemiol 38:1453-1458. PDF

Dubos R, Savage D and Schaedler S (2005). Lasting effects of early environmental influences . Int J Epidemiol 34:5-12. PDF

• Commentary: Tannock GW (2005). Commentary: Remembrance of microbes past . Int J Epidemiol 34:13-15. PDF
• Commentary: Waterland RA (2005). Commentary: The global relevance of ‘biological Freudianism’ . Int J Epidemiol 34:15-17. PDF
• Commentary: Moore V (2005). Commentary: Biological Freudianism and the quest for understanding of the social origins of health . Int J Epidemiol 34:18-20. PDF

Eberstadt N (2006). The health crisis in the USSR. Int J Epidemiol 35:1384-1394. PDF

• Commentary: Eberstadt N (2006). Commentary: Reflections on ‘The Health Crisis in the USSR’ . Int J Epidemiol 35:1394-1397. PDF
• Commentary: McKee M (2006). Commentary: The health crisis in the USSR: looking behind the facade . Int J Epidemiol 35:1398-1399. PDF
• Commentary: Davis C (2006). Commentary: The Health Crisis in the USSR: reflections on the Nicholas Eberstadt 1981 review of Rising Infant Mortality in the USSR in the 1970s . Int J Epidemiol 35:1400-1405. PDF
• Commentary: Shkolnikov VM and Leon DA (2006). Commentary: N Eberstadt's ‘The health crisis in the USSR’ and sustainable mortality reversal in the post-Soviet space during communism and after . Int J Epidemiol 35:1406-1409. PDF

Forsdahl A (2002). Observations throwing light on the high mortality in the county of Finnmark. Is the high mortality today a late effect of very poor living conditions in childhood and adolescence? Int J Epidemiol 31:302-308. PDF

• Commentary: Forsdahl A (2002). Commentary: Childhood deprivation and adult mortality. Int J Epidemiol 31:308. PDF
• Commentary: Barker DJP (2002). Commentary: Components in the interpretation of the high mortality in the county of Finnmark. Int J Epidemiol 31:309-310. PDF

Garfield E (2006). Citation indexes for science. A new dimension in documentation through association of ideas . Int J Epidemiol 35:1123-1127. PDF

• Commentary: Garfield E (2006). Commentary: Fifty years of citation indexing . Int J Epidemiol 35:1127-1128. PDF
• Commentary: Smith R (2006). Commentary: The power of the unrelenting impact factor—Is it a force for good or harm? . Int J Epidemiol 35:1129-1130. PDF
• Commentary: Porta M, Fernandez E, and Bolúmar F (2006). Commentary: The ‘bibliographic impact factor’ and the still uncharted sociology of epidemiology . Int J Epidemiol 35:1130-1135. PDF

Garland CF and Garland FC (2006). Do sunlight and vitamin D reduce the likelihood of colon cancer? . Int J Epidemiol 35:217-220. PDF

• Commentary: Garland CF and Garland FC (2006). Commentary: Progress of a paradigm . Int J Epidemiol 35:220-222. PDF
• Commentary: Giovannucci E (2006). Commentary: Vitamin D and colorectal cancer—twenty-five years later . Int J Epidemiol 35:222-224. PDF
• Commentary: Grant WB and Gorham ED (2006). Commentary: Time for public health action on vitamin D for cancer risk reduction . Int J Epidemiol 35:224-225. PDF
• Commentary: Cross HS (2006). Commentary: From epidemiology to molecular biology—vitamin D and colorectal cancer prevention . Int J Epidemiol 35:225-227. PDF
• Commentary: Egan KM (2006). Commentary: Sunlight, vitamin D, and the cancer connection revisited . Int J Epidemiol 35:227-230. PDF
• Commentary: Armstrong BK (2006). Commentary: Seeing the light . Int J Epidemiol 35:231-232. PDF

Glover JA (2008). The Incidence of Tonsillectomy in School children. Int J Epidemiol 37:9-19. PDF

• Commentary: McPherson K (2008). Commentary: James Alison Glover (1874–1963), OBE (1919) CBE (1941) MD (1905) DPH (1905) FRCP (1933): health care variations research then and now . Int J Epidemiol 37:19-23. PDF
• Commentary: Burton MJ (2008). Commentary: Tonsillectomy—then and now . Int J Epidemiol 37:23-25. PDF
• Commentary: Wennberg J (2008). Commentary: A debt of gratitude to J. Alison Glover . Int J Epidemiol 37:26-29. PDF

Haldane JBS (2008). A Defense of Beanbag Genetics . Int J Epidemiol 37:435-442. PDF

• Commentary: Crow JF (2008). Commentary: Haldane and beanbag genetics . Int J Epidemiol 37:442-445. PDF
• Commentary: Morton NE (2008). Commentary: Growth of beanbag genetics . Int J Epidemiol 37:445-446. PDF
• Commentary: Ewens WJ (2008). Commentary: On Haldane's ‘defense of beanbag genetics’ . Int J Epidemiol 37:447-451. PDF
• Commentary: Borges RM (2008). Commentary: The objection is sustained: a defence of the defense of beanbag genetics . Int J Epidemiol 37:451-454. PDF
• Commentary: Evans A (2008). Commentary: The six biological inventions in Haldane's Daedalus . Int J Epidemiol 37:454-469. PDF

Jewson ND (2009). The disappearance of the sick-man from medical cosmology, 1770–1870 . Int J Epidemiol 38:622-633. PDF

• Commentary: Nettleton S (2009). Commentary: The appearance of new medical cosmologies and the re-appearance of sick and healthy men and women: a comment on the merits of social theorizing . Int J Epidemiol 38:633-636. PDF
• Commentary: Prior L (2009). Commentary: From sick men and women, to patients, and thence to clients and consumers—the structuring of the ‘patient’ in the modern world . Int J Epidemiol 38:637-639. PDF
• Commentary: Nicolson M (2009). Commentary: Nicholas Jewson and the disappearance of the sick man from medical cosmology, 1770–1870 . Int J Epidemiol 38:639-642. PDF
• Commentary: Armstrong D (2009). Commentary: Indeterminate sick-men—a commentary on Jewson's ‘Disappearance of the sick-man from medical cosmology’ . Int J Epidemiol 38:642-645. PDF
• Commentary: Pickstone JV (2009). Commentary: From history of medicine to a general history of ‘working knowledges’ . Int J Epidemiol 38:646-649. PDF

Kark SL (2003). The social pathology of syphilis in Africans . Int J Epidemiol 32:181-186. PDF

• Commentary: Gazi C (2003). Commentary: The legacy of Sidney Kark . Int J Epidemiol 32:187. PDF
• Commentary: Reddy PS, Mbewu AD, Nogoduka CM (2003). Commentary: Sexually transmitted infection in South Africa: 50 years after Sidney Kark . Int J Epidemiol 32:187-189. PDF
• Commentary: Myer L, Morroni C and Susser ES (2003). Commentary: The social pathology of the HIV/AIDS pandemic . Int J Epidemiol 32:189-192. PDF

Katan MB (2004). Apolipoprotein E isoforms, serum cholesterol, and cancer . Int J Epidemiol 33:9. PDF

• Commentary: Katan MB (2004). Commentary: Mendelian randomization, 18 years on . Int J Epidemiol 33:10-11. PDF
• Commentary: Keavney B (2004). Commentary: Katan's remarkable foresight: genes and causality 18 years on . Int J Epidemiol 33:11-14. PDF
• Commentary: Wheatley K and Gray R (2004). Commentary: Mendelian randomization—an update on its use to evaluate allogeneic stem cell transplantation in leukaemia. Int J Epidemiol 33:15-17. PDF
• Commentary: Brennan P (2004). Commentary: Mendelian randomization and gene–environment interaction . Int J Epidemiol 33:17-21. PDF
• Commentary: Thomas DC and Conti DV (2004). Commentary: The concept of ‘Mendelian Randomization’ . Int J Epidemiol 33:21-25. PDF
• Commentary: Tobin MD et al. (2004). Commentary: Development of Mendelian randomization: from hypothesis test to ‘Mendelian deconfounding’ . Int J Epidemiol 33:26-29. PDF
• Commentary: Davey-Smith G and Ebrahim S (2004). Mendelian randomization: prospects, potentials, and limitations . Int J Epidemiol 33:30-42. PDF

Kermack WO, McKendrick AG, and McKinlay PL (2001). Death-rates in Great Britain and Sweden. Some general regularities and their significance. Int J Epidemiol 30:678-683. PDF

• Commentary: Susser M (2001). Commentary: the longitudinal perspective and cohort analysis. Int J Epidemiol 30:684-687. PDF
• Commentary: Harris B (2001). Commentary: 'the child is father of the man.' The relationship between child health and adult mortality in the 19th and 20th centuries. Int J Epidemiol 30:688-696. PDF
• Commentary: Davey Smith G, and Kuh D (2001). Commentary: William Ogilvy Kermack and the childhood origins of adult health and disease. Int J Epidemiol 30:696-703. PDF

Kune GA, Kune S, and Watson LF (2007). Colorectal cancer risk, chronic illnesses, operations and medications: case–control results from the Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study . Int J Epidemiol 36:951-957. PDF

• Commentary: Kune G (2007). Commentary: Aspirin and cancer prevention . Int J Epidemiol 36:957-959. PDF
• Commentary: Logan R (2007). Commentary: Preventing colorectal cancer with aspirin—what next? . Int J Epidemiol 36:960-962. PDF
• Commentary: Floßmann E and Rothwell PM (2007). Commentary: Aspirin and colorectal cancer—an epidemiological success story . Int J Epidemiol 36:962-965. PDF

Leitch I (2001). Growth and health. Int J Epidemiol 30:212-216. PDF

• Commentary: Pemberton J (2001). Commentary: Isabella Leitch (1890-1980)-a personal memoir. Int J Epidemiol 30:216-217. PDF
• Commentary: Victora CG and Barros FC (2001). Commentary: The catch-up dilemma-relevance of Leitch's 'low-high' pig to child growth in developing countries. Int J Epidemiol 30:217-220. PDF
• Commentary: Gunnell D (2001). Commentary: Early insights into height, leg length, proportionate growth and health. Int J Epidemiol 30:221-222. PDF
• Commentary: Smith DF (2001). Commentary: The contexts of the Carnegie Survey 1937-1940, and Isabella Leitch's 'Growth and health' delivered to the Nutrition Society in October 1950. Int J Epidemiol 30:223-225. PDF

Lewontin RC (2006). The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. Int J Epidemiol 35:520-525. PDF

• Commentary: Rose SPR (2006). Commentary: Heritability estimates—long past their sell-by date . Int J Epidemiol 35:525-527. PDF
• Commentary: Taylor P (2006). Commentary: The analysis of variance is an analysis of causes (of a very circumscribed kind) . Int J Epidemiol 35:527-531. PDF
• Commentary: Vreeke GJ (2006). Commentary: The attainability of causal knowledge of genetic effects in complex human traits . Int J Epidemiol 35:531-534. PDF
• Commentary: Freese J (2006). Commentary: The analysis of variance and the social complexities of genetic causation . Int J Epidemiol 35:534-536. PDF
• Commentary: Lewontin RC (2006). Commentary: Statistical analysis or biological analysis as tools for understanding biological causes . Int J Epidemiol 35:536-537. PDF

Lower GM et al. (2007). N-acetyltransferase phenotype and risk in urinary bladder cancer: approaches in molecular epidemiology. Preliminary results in Sweden and Denmark . Int J Epidemiol 36:11-18. PDF

• Commentary: Olden K (2007). Commentary: From phenotype, to genotype, to gene–environment interaction and risk for complex diseases . Int J Epidemiol 36:18-20. PDF
• Commentary: Vineis P (2007). Commentary: First steps in molecular epidemiology: Lower et al. 1979 . Int J Epidemiol 36:20-22. PDF
• Commentary: Rothman N, Garcia-Closas M, and Hein DW (2007). Commentary: Reflections on G. M. Lower and colleagues’ 1979 study associating slow acetylator phenotype with urinary bladder cancer: meta-analysis, historical refinements of the hypothesis, and lessons learned . Int J Epidemiol 36:23-28. PDF

Marmot MG (2001). Alcohol and coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 30:724-729. PDF

• Commentary: Marmot MG (2001). Commentary: reflections on alcohol and coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 30:729-734. PDF
• Commentary: Bovet P and Paccaud F (2001). Commentary: Alcohol, coronary heart disease and public health: which evidence-based policy. Int J Epidemiol 30:734-737. PDF
• Commentary: Rimm E (2001). Commentary: Alcohol and coronary heart disease-laying the foundation for future work. Int J Epidemiol 30:738-739. PDF
• Commentary: Klatsky AL (2001). Commentary: Could abstienence from alcohol be hazardous to your health? Int J Epidemiol 30:739-742. PDF

Marmot M (2009). Facts, opinions and affaires du couer . Int J Epidemiol 38:903-907. PDF

• Commentary: Marmot M (2009). Commentary: A continued affair with science and judgements . Int J Epidemiol 38:908-910. PDF
• Commentary: Rothstein WG (2009). Commentary: Making risk factors more cost-effective predictors of disease . Int J Epidemiol 38:911-913. PDF
• Commentary: Carter S (2009). Commentary: Facts, opinions and affaires du coeur . Int J Epidemiol 38:914-916. PDF

McKeown T (2005). Medical issues in historical demography . Int J Epidemiol 34:515-520. PDF

• Commentary: Wilson LG (2005). Commentary: Medicine, population, and tuberculosis . Int J Epidemiol 34:521-524. PDF
• Commentary: Condran GA (2005). Commentary: History in the search of policy . Int J Epidemiol 34:525-526. PDF
• Commentary: Johansson SR (2005). Commentary: The pitfalls of policy history. Writing the past to change the present . Int J Epidemiol 34:526-529. PDF
• Commentary: Grundy E (2005). Commentary: The McKeown debate: time for burial . Int J Epidemiol 34:529-533. PDF

Medical Research Council, Report of the Patulin Clinical Trials Committee (2004). Clinical Trial of Patulin in the Common Cold. Int J Epidemiol 33:243-246. PDF

• Commentary: Kaptchuk TJ, and Kerr CE (2004). Commentary: Unbiased divination, unbiased evidence, and the patulin clinical trial. Int J Epidemiol 33:247-251. PDF
• Commentary: Sutherland I (2004). Commentary: MRC Patulin trial. Int J Epidemiol 33:252. PDF
• Commentary: Chalmers I, and Clarke M (2004). Commentary: The 1944 patulin trial: the first properly controlled multicentre trial conducted under the aegis of the British Medical Research Council. Int J Epidemiol 32:253-260. PDF

Morris JN (2007). Uses of epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1165-1172. PDF

• Commentary: Krieger N (2007). Commentary: Ways of asking and ways of living: Reflections on the 50th anniversary of Morris' ever useful Uses of Epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1173-1180. PDF
• Commentary: Porter D (2007). Calculating health and social change: An essay on Jerry Morris and Late-modernist epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1180-1184. PDF
• Commentary: Oakley A (2007). Fifty years of JN Morris's Uses of Epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 36:1184-1185. PDF

Ounsted M, Scott A, and Ounsted C (2008). Transmission through the female line of a mechanism constraining human fetal growth. Int J Epidemiol 37:245-250. PDF

• Commentary: Cnattingius S (2008). Commentary: On ‘Transmission through the female line of a mechanism constraining human fetal growth’—does it exist? . Int J Epidemiol 37:250-252. PDF
• Commentary: Hanson MA and Godfrey KM (2008). Commentary: Maternal constraint is a pre-eminent regulator of fetal growth . Int J Epidemiol 37:252-254. PDF
• Commentary: Magnus P (2008). Commentary: A need for unconstrained thinking on foetal growth . Int J Epidemiol 37:254-255. PDF
• Commentary: Leon DA (2008). Commentary: The development of the Ounsteds’ theory of maternal constraint—a critical perspective . Int J Epidemiol 37:255-259. PDF

Pemberton J (2003). Malnutrition in England . Int J Epidemiol 32:493-495. PDF

• Commentary: Pemberton J (2003). ‘Malnutrition in England’ University College Hospital Magazine 1934 Some reflections in 2003 on the 1930s . Int J Epidemiol 32:496-498. PDF
• Commentary: Morris JN (2003). Commentary: Minimum incomes for healthy living: then, now—and tomorrow? . Int J Epidemiol 32:498-499. PDF
• Commentary: Smith DF (2003). Commentary: The context and outcome of nutrition campaigning in 1934 . Int J Epidemiol 32:500-502. PDF
• Commentary: de Onis M (2003). Commentary: Socioeconomic inequalities and child growth. Int J Epidemiol 32:503-505. PDF
• Commentary: Elwood P (2003). Commentary: John Pemberton Professor of Social Medicine, Queen’s University, Belfast, 1958–1976. Int J Epidemiol 32:506. PDF

Poisson et al. (2001). Statistical research on conditions caused by calculi by Doctor Civiale. Int J Epidemiol 30:1246-1249. PDF

• Commentary: Matthews JR (2001). Commentary: The Paris Academy of Science report on Jean Civiale's statistical research and the 19th century background to evidence-based medicine. Int J Epidemiol 30:1249-1250. PDF
• Commentary: Black N (2001). Commentary: That was then, this is now. Int J Epidemiol 30:1251. PDF
• Commentary: Tröhler U (2001). Commentary: 'Medical art' versus 'medical science': J Civiale's statistical research on conditions caused by calculi at the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1835. Int J Epidemiol 30:1252-1253. PDF
• Commentary: Vandenbroucke JP (2001). Commentary: Treatment of bladder stones and probabilistic reasoning in medicine: an 1835 account and its lessons for the present. Int J Epidemiol 30:1253-1258. PDF

Preston SH (2007). The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development . Int J Epidemiol 36:484-490. PDF

• Commentary: Kunitz SJ (2007). Commentary: Samuel Preston's ‘The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development’ . Int J Epidemiol 36:491-492. PDF
• Commentary: Wilkinson RG (2007). Commentary: The changing relation between mortality and income . Int J Epidemiol 36:492-494. PDF
• Commentary: Riley JC (2007). Commentary: Missed Opportunities . Int J Epidemiol 36:494-495. PDF
• Commentary: Mackenbach JP (2007). Commentary: Did Preston underestimate the effect of economic development on mortality? . Int J Epidemiol 36:496-497. PDF
• Commentary: Bloom DE and Canning D (2007). Commentary: The Preston Curve 30 years on: still sparking fires . Int J Epidemiol 36:498-499. PDF
• Commentary: Leon DA (2007). Commentary: Preston and mortality trends since the mid-1970s . Int J Epidemiol 36:500-501. PDF
• Commentary: Preston SH (2007). Response: On ‘The Changing Relation between Mortality and Level of Economic Development’ . Int J Epidemiol 36:502-503. PDF

Rich AR (2007). On the frequency of occurrence of occult carcinoma of the prostrate . Int J Epidemiol 36:274-277. PDF

• Commentary: Martin RM (2007). Commentary: Prostate cancer is omnipresent, but should we screen for it? . Int J Epidemiol 36:278-281. PDF
• Commentary: Albertsen PC (2007). Commentary: Occult prostate cancer—imposter or the real deal? . Int J Epidemiol 36:281-282. PDF
• Commentary: Miller AB (2007) Commentary: Implications of the frequent occurrence of occult carcinoma of the prostate . Int J Epidemiol 36:282-284. PDF
• Commentary: Adolfsson J (2007). Commentary: On the incidence of histological prostate cancer and the probable diagnosis of cases with tumours too small to produce symptoms or to attract attention on physical examination—the findings of Dr Arnold Rice Rich . Int J Epidemiol 36:285-287. PDF
• Commentary: Thompson IM, Lucia MS, and Tangen CM (2007). Commentary: The ubiquity of prostate cancer: echoes of the past, implications for the present: "What has been will be again, what has been done will be done again,; there is nothing new under the sun." ECCLESIASTES 1:9 . Int J Epidemiol 36:287-289. PDF

Robins JM and Greenland S (1992). Identifiability and exchangeability for direct and indirect effects. Epidemiology 3(2)143-155. PDF

Robins JM, Hernán MA and Brumback B (2000). Marginal structural models and causal inference in epidemiology. Epidemiology 11(5):550-560. PDF

Robinson WS (1950)[2009 reprint]. Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals. Int J Epidemiol 38: 337–341. PDF

• Commentary: Subramanian SV et al. (2009). Revisiting Robinson: The perils of individualistic and ecologic fallacy Int J Epidemiol 38:342-360. PDF
• Commentary: Oakes JM (2009). Commentary: Individual, ecological and multilevel fallacies Int J Epidemiol 38:361-368. PDF
• Commentary: Firebaugh G (2009). Commentary: ‘Is the Social World Flat? W.S. Robinson and the Ecologic Fallacy’ Int J Epidemiol 38:368-370. PDF
• Commentary: Subramanian (2009). Response: The value of a historically informed multilevel analysis of Robinson's data Int J Epidemiol 38:370-373. PDF

Rodgers GB (2002). Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: an international cross-section analysis. Int J Epidemiol 31:533-538. PDF

• Commentary: Wilkinson R (2002). Commentary: Liberty, fraternity, equality. Int J Epidemiol 31:538-543. PDF
• Commentary: Porta M, Borrell C, and Copete JL (2002). Commentary: Theory in the fabric of evidence on the health effects of inequalities in income distribution. Int J Epidemiol 31:543-546. PDF
• Commentary: Deaton A (2002). Commentary: The convoluted story of international studies of inequality and health. Int J Epidemiol 31: 546-549. PDF
• Commentary: Lynch J, and Davey-Smith G (2002). Commentary: Income inequality and health: the end of the story? Int J Epidemiol 31:549-551. PDF

Rose G (2001). Sick Individuals and Sick Populations. Int J Epidemiol 30:427-432. PDF

• Commentary: Ebrahim S, and Lau E (2001). Commentary: Sick populations and sick individuals. Int J Epidemiol 30:433-434. PDF
• Commentary: McCormick J (2001). Commentary: Reflections on sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol 30:434-435. PDF
• Commentary: Schwartz S, and Diez-Roux R (2001). Commentary: Causes of incidence and causes of cases - a durkheimian perspective on Rose. Int J Epidemiol 30:435-439. PDF
• Commentary: Weed DL (2001). Commentary: A Radical Future for Public Health. Int J Epidemiol 30:440-441. PDF
• Commentary: Hunt K and Emslie C (2001). Commentary: The Prevention Paradox in Lay Epidemiology - Rose revisited. In J Epidemiol 30:442-446. PDF

Rose G (2005). Incubation period of coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 34:242-244. PDF

• Commentary: Marchant AT, Anand SS, and Yusuf S (2005). Commentary: Insights from cross-population studies: Rose revisited. Int J Epidemiol 34:244-246. PDF
• Commentary: Færgeman O (2005). Commentary: Geoffrey Rose's thinking about coronary artery disease. Int J Epidemiol 34:246-247. PDF
• Commentary: McCarron P and Davey-Smith G (2005). Commentary: Incubation of coronary heart disease - recent developments. Int J Epidemiol 34:248-250. PDF

Rothman KJ (2007). The rise and fall of epidemiology, 1950-2000 A.D. Int J Epidemiol 36:708-710. PDF

• Commentary: Rothman KJ (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology still ascendent. Int J Epidemiol 36:710-711. PDF
• Commentary: Victora CG (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology and futurology - why did Rothman get it wrong? Int J Epidemiol 36:712-713. PDF
• Commentary: Pearce N (2007). Commentary: The rise and rise of corporate epidemiology and the narrowing of epidemiology's vision. Int J Epidemiol 36:713-717. PDF
• Commentary: Coebergh JWW (2007). Commentary: Epidemiology needs the patients to survive. Int J Epidemiol 36:717-719. PDF
• Commentary: Coleman MP (2007). Commentary: Is epidemiology really dead, anyway? A look back at Kenneth Rothman's 'The rise and fall of epidemiology, 1950-2000 AD.' Int J Epidemiol 36:719-723. PDF

Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Walker AM (1980). Concepts of interaction. Am J Epidemiol 112: 467-470. PDF

Schairer E, and Schöniger E (2001). Lung cancer and tobacco consumption. Int J Epidemiol 30:24-27. PDF

• Commentary: Schairer HU (2001). Commentary: In Memoriam of my Father, Prof. Dr. med. Dietrich Eberhard Schairer. Int J Epidemiol 30:28-29. PDF
  
• Commentary: Doll R (2001). Commentary: Lung Cancer and Tobacco Consumption. Int J Epidemiol 30:30-31. PDF
  
• Commentary: Proctor RN (2001). Commentary: Schairer and Schöniger's forgotten tobacco epidemiology and the Nazi quest for racial purity. Int J Epidemiol 30:31-34. PDF
  
• Commentary: Zimmermann S, Egger M, and Hossfeld U (2001). Commentary: Pioneering research into smoking and health in Nazi Germany - The 'Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren' in Jena. Int J Epidemiol 30:35-37. PDF
• Commentary: Ernst E (2001). Commentary: The Third Reich - German physicians between resistance and participation. Int J Epidemiol 30:37-42. PDF

Segall JJ (2008). Hypothesis: Is Lactose a Dietary Risk Factor for Ischaemic Heart Disease? . Int J Epidemiol 37:1204-1208. PDF

• Commentary: Grant WB (2008). Commentary: Ecologic studies in identifying dietary risk factors for coronary heart disease and cancer . Int J Epidemiol 37:1209-1211. PDF
• Commentary: Elwood P (2008). Commentary: Lactose and ischaemic heart disease: a sweet hypothesis ... but nothing more! . Int J Epidemiol 37:1211-1213. PDF
• Commentary: Al-Delaimy WK (2008). Commentary: Lactose and ischaemic heart disease: a weak 28-year-old hypothesis . Int J Epidemiol 37:1214-1216. PDF

Shaw GB (2003). The doctor's dilemma. Int J Epidemiol 32:910-915. PDF

• Commentary: Donaldson L (2003). Commentary: The Doctor’s Dilemma: a response . Int J Epidemiol 32:915-916. PDF
• Commentary: Hart JT (2003). Commentary: A very Fabian dilemma . Int J Epidemiol 32: 916-917. PDF
• Commentary: Peters S (2003). Commentary: Bernard Shaw’s dilemma: marked by mortality . Int J Epidemiol 32:918-919. PDF
• Commentary: Reddy KS (2003). Commentary: Shaw’s critique of health care is still valid . Int J Epidemiol 32:919-921. PDF

Snow J (2003). On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets . Int J Epidemiol 32:336-337. PDF

• Commentary: Hardy A (2003). Commentary: Bread and alum, syphilis and sunlight: rickets in the nineteenth century . Int J Epidemiol 32:337-340. PDF
• Commentary: Dunnigan M (2003). Commentary: John Snow and alum-induced rickets from adulterated London bread: an overlooked contribution to metabolic bone disease . Int J Epidemiol 32:340-341. PDF
• Commentary: Paneth N (2003). Commentary: Snow on rickets. Int J Epidemiol 32:341-343. PDF

The South-East London Screening Study (2001). A controlled trial of multiphasic screening in middle-age: results of the South-East London Screening Study. Int J Epidemiol 30:935-940. PDF

• Commentary: Holland W (2001). Commentary: A history of the South-East London Screening Study. Int J Epidemiol 30:940-942. PDF
• Commentary: Fowler G (2001). Commentary: GP 'check-ups' still of limited value. Int J Epidemiol 30:942-943. PDF
• Commentary: Leeder S (2001). Commentary: Learning in Lambeth-the South-East London Screening Study revisited. Int J Epidemiol 30:944-945. PDF
• Commentary: Stamler J (2001). Commentary: On the report of the South-East London Screening Study. Int J Epidemiol 30:946-947. PDF

Stampfer MJ and Colditz GA (2004). Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic evidence . Int J Epidemiol 33:445-453. PDF

• Commentary: Stampfer M (2004). Commentary: Hormones and heart disease: do trials and observational studies address different questions? Int J Epidemiol 33:454-455. PDF
• Commentary: Vandenbroucke JP (2004). Commentary: The HRT story: vindication of old epidemiological theory . Int J Epidemiol 33:456-457. PDF
• Commentary: Barrett-Connor E (2004). Commentary: Observation versus intervention—what's different? . Int J Epidemiol 33:457-459. PDF
• Commentary: Kuller LH (2004). Commentary: Hazards of studying women: the oestrogen oestrogen/progesterone dilemma . Int J Epidemiol 33:459-460. PDF
• Commentary: Petitti D (2004). Commentary: Hormone replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: four lessons . Int J Epidemiol 33:461-463. PDF
• Commentary: Lawlor DA, Davey-Smith G, and Ebrahim S (2004). Commentary: The hormone replacement–coronary heart disease conundrum: is this the death of observational epidemiology? Int J Epidemiol 33:464-467. PDF

Stewart IMcDG (2002). Coronary disease and modern stress . Int J Epidemiol 31:1103-1107. PDF

• Commentary: Platt R (2002). Commentary (1951): Coronary disease and modern stress . Int J Epidemiol 31:1108-1109. PDF
• Commentary: Syme SL (2002). Commentary: Modern stress and coronary heart disease: still problematic . Int J Epidemiol 31:1109-1110. PDF
• Commentary: Macleod J and Davey-Smith G. (2002). Commentary: Stress and the heart, 50 years of progress? Int J Epidemiol 31:1111-1113. PDF
• Commentary: Stansfeld SA (2002). Commentary: The problem with stress: minds, hearts and disease. Int J Epidemiol 31:1113-1116. PDF

Susser M and Stein Z (2002). Civilization and peptic ulcer. Int J Epidemiol 31:13-17. PDF

• Commentary: Susser M and Stein Z (2002). Commentary: Civilization and peptic ulcer 40 years on. Int J Epidemiol 31:18-21. PDF
• Commentary: Marshall B (2002). Commentary: Helicobacter as the 'environmental factor' in Susser and Stein's cohort theory of peptic ulcer disease. Int J Epidemiol 31:21-22. PDF
• Commentary: Sonnenberg, Cucino and Bauerfeind (2002). Commentary: The unresolved mystery of birth-cohort phenomena in gastroenterology. Int J Epidemiol 31:23-26. PDF
• Commentary: Langman M (2002). Commentary: Peptic ulcer, Susser and Steinand the cohort phenomenon. Int J Epidemiol 31:27-28. PDF
• Commentary: Levenstein S (2002). Commentary: Peptic ulcer and its discontents. PDF

Sutherland J (2002). EXTRACTS from Appendix (A) to the Report of the General Board of Health on the Epidemic Cholera of 1848 & 1849 . Int J Epidemiol 31:900-907. PDF

• Commentary: Snow SJ (2002). Commentary: Sutherland, Snow and water: the transmission of cholera in the nineteenth century . Int J Epidemiol 31:908-911. PDF
• Commentary: Halliday S (2002). Commentary: Dr John Sutherland, Vibrio cholerae and ‘predisposing causes.' Int J Epidemiol 31:912-914. PDF
• Commentary: Hamlin C (2002). Commentary: John Sutherland’s Epidemiology of Constitutions. Int J Epidemiol 31:915-919. PDF
• Commentary: Davey-Smith G (2002). Commentary: Behind the Broad Street pump: aetiology, epidemiology and prevention of cholera in mid-19th century Britain. Int J Epidemiol 31:920-932. PDF

Thompson W (2004). Preservation of health . Int J Epidemiol 33:635-640. PDF

• Evans A (2004). Practical directions to the preservation of health . Int J Epidemiol 33:640-649. PDF

 

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